Corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel, because the corrosion products (rust) occupy more volume than the original steel, and the resultant pressure spalls the concrete.
Fire exposure due to which free water in concrete change to stem and create internal expansive pressure in concrete, consequently spall off concrete.
Freeze and thaw cycling
Expansive effects of Alkali Silica Reaction
Inadequate depth of cover over reinforcement
Low quality concrete cover over reinforcing steel.
Joint spalls are often caused by improperly constructed joints lead to joint spalling
Bond failure in two-course construction due to Differences in shrinkage between topping and base courses, drying of the bonding grout before the topping concrete is placed etc.
Repair of concrete spalling vary based on severity of the damage, type and location of concrete structure. It should be performed based on recommendations of applicable codes such as ACI Code and BS EN 1504.
1. Clean Spalled Concrete Area
Clean the area to be repaired from any dirt to eliminate bond breaker agents. If heavy stains and dirt build up, then a pressure washer may be needed to properly clean the surface.
2. Clean and Coating Corroded Steel Bars
Clean the rebar from corrosion or other dirt using wire brush and then, apply a protective coating to avoid rusting.
3. Apply Repair Material Mixture
The best recommended patching material is Portland-cement-based or epoxy.
Damage on driveways, walkways, and other horizontal surfaces may be repaired with a cementitious overlay.
If affected area is adjacent to a joint, ensure that it is restored properly so as to give some allowance for expansion of the member.